Indian Kingdoms in 18th Century

Marathas

RISE OF MARATHAS UNDER SHIVAJI:

Introduction

Various factors contributed to the rise of Marathas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities among the Marathas. The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics. They built a number of formidable forts on the mountains. The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among them.

The Marathas held important positions in the administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. But the credit of establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji. The political unity was rendered by Shivaji Maharaj.

Shivaji was born at Shivner in 1627. His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai. He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.

Achievements of Chhatrapati Shivaji

Initial phase
- He first conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Torna from the ruler of Bijapur.
- After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of his jagir.
- He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of Mavala region.
- In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the Konkan region.
- The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji. But Afzal Khan was murdered by Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner.
Military Conquests of Shivaji
- Shivaji’s military conquests made him a legendary figure in the Maratha region. The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of Maratha power under Shivaji.
- Aurangzeb sent the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona.
- But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan.
- In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and plundered it.
- A second attempt was made by Aurangzeb to defeat Shivaji by sending Raja Jai Singh of Amber. He succeeded in besieging the fort of Purander.
- Treaty of Purander 1665:
  - According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts held by him.
  - The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to Mughal empire.
  - On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the Bijapur kingdom.
- Renewed war against Mughals
  - Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670.
  - He also captured all his lost territories by his conquests.
  - In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi.

Shivaji’s policy and Expansion of Marathas

Administrative Policies
- He laid the foundations of a sound system of administration. The king was the pivot of the government. He was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan.
  - Peshwa – Finance and general administration. Later he became the prime minister
  - Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander, a honorary post.
  - Amatya – Accountant General.
  - Waqenavis – Intelligence, posts and household affairs.
  - Sachiv – Correspondence.
  - Sumanta – Master of ceremonies
  - Nyayadish – Justice.
  - Panditarao – Charities and religious administration.
- Revenue Policies
  - Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called kathi. Lands were also classified into three categories – paddy fields, garden lands and hilly tracks.
  - Taxes : Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected not in the Maratha kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal empire or Deccan sultanates.
    - Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha raids.
    - Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.
  - Military Policies

Shivaji was a man of military genius and his army was well organized.

The regular army consisted of about 30000 to 40000 cavalry supervised by havaildars. They were given fixed salaries.
There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry –
1. Bargirs, equipped and paid by the state;
2. Silahdars, maintained by the nobles.
In the infantry, the Mavli foot soldiers played an important role.
Shivaji also maintained a navy.
The forts played an important role in the military operations of the Marathas. By the end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240 forts. Each fort was put under the charge of three officers of equal rank as a precaution against treachery.

The above conquests and policies of Shivaji was the major reason for Maratha stronghold in the region against Mughals. They became a formidable enemy of neighboring kings.

Marathas after Shivaji

The Maratha kingdom was, however, certainly weakened at the start of 18^th century due to various internal and external factors.

A full-scale civil war broke out between the forces of Shahu (grandson of Shivaji) and those of Tarabai (Rajaram’s widow).The loyalty of Maratha sardars and Deshmukhs kept on shifting from one block to another.
Since the time of Balaji Viswanath, the office of the Peshwa became powerful. He died in 1720 and was succeeded by his son Baji Rao, who was in power till 1740.
After the death of Baji Rao in 1740, Shahu appointed his son Balaji Bajirao (1740-1761) as Peshwa. This was indeed the peak period of Maratha glory.
In 1761, after the third battle of Panipat Madhav Rao became the Peshwa. In 1772, Madhav Rao died of consumption.
After the death of Madhav Rao, the struggle for power occurred between Raghunath Rao and Narayan Rao. In 1773 Narayan Rao was killed.
Madhav Rao Narayan succeeded his father Narayan Rao.
Raghunath Rao tried to capture power with the help of British. This led to the 1^st Anglo- Maratha war.
Madhav Rao died in 1794. Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao succeeded Madhav Rao.
At the end of 3^rd Anglo- Maratha war Peshwa was dethroned and pensioned off while other Maratha states remained as subsidiary states.

3^RD BATTLE OF PANIPAT:

The Third battle of Panipat was fought between the Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau and Durranis of Afghanistan, by Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1761. The Third Battle of Panipat changed the power equations in India, the Afghans could hardly rule any further, but paved the way for British Rule in India.

The main reasons for the battle

The weakness of Mughal emperors and the division of the nobility in contending groups.
The ambition of the Marathas to gain influence in the North and, for that purpose, their promise, of support to the Mughal emperor.
Lastly, the ambition of Abdali to capture Kashmir, Multan and Punjab and, for that purpose, his support to the Turani group of nobility.

Outcomes of the battle:

The third battle ended the Maratha attempt to succeed the Mughals as rulers of India and marked the virtual end of the Mughal empire.
The Maratha army, under the Bhao Sahib, uncle of the peshwa (chief minister), was trapped and destroyed by the Afghan chief Aḥmad Shah Durrānī.
This began 40 years of anarchy in north-western India and cleared the way for later British supremacy.

18^th Century:

The 18th century was a period of profound change in the Indian subcontinent as the Mughal Empire gave way to regional powers, many of whom, like the Marathas, aspired to, and almost achieved, imperial status.
The century saw an array of social movements organised around religion viz. Bhakti Movement, community articulations, and agrarian expansion, often crystallising into coherent political entities.
It was a period made for political adventurism, with shifting alliances making any political calculation virtually impossible.
In this cauldron was a heady mix of religious invocation that did not always correspond to the cleavages that we assume to exist between Hindus and Muslims.
Durrani chief was able to enlist the support of several malcontents (the Rohilla chief, the Nawab of Awadh) and most impressively, of the warrior ascetics, the Naga sanyasis and Gosains

Thus, we can see that there were mostly political undertones than religious undertones.

The impact of the battle:

setback to expansionist policy of Maratha and rise of Sikh in Punjab.
The fragility of alliances and the overriding greed for immediate gain undercut possibilities of any long-term balancing of imperial aspirations with those of local powerholders.
The precarity of hastily conceived alliances, the extreme cynicism that accompanied all political and diplomatic engagements, blurred distinctions between friend and foe.
It was certain then that the Battle of Panipat temporarily halted the Maratha advance, and enabled the East India Company to maintain a low profile for a while, consolidate its early gains in Bengal, and subsequently make a strong bid for supremacy in the subcontinent.

Contemporary political scene seems to have resemblances to cynical power politics. But it is certain now that the stakes are high, the narrative overcharged with religious symbols, while on the ground, all contenders have to grapple with the realities of power and go beyond the equations of caste, community,

Anglo Maratha wars:

WAR & Year	Reason & Course of Events	Maratha & British Leaders	RESULT
I (1775-82)	British support to Raghunath Rao & signing of Treaty of Surat with him angered Nana Phadnavis. Nana Phadnavis signed Treaty of Purandar with british. Sheltering Raghunath Rao angered Maratha leaders leading to series of Conflicts	Raghunath Rao, Nana Phadnavis & Warren Hastings	Treaty of Salbai peace of 2 decades.
II (1803-06)	Internal conflicts within Marathas; Scindia & Peshwa Killed Vithoji Rao Holkar & as a result of which Yeshwant Rao Holkar attacked Poona. Baji Rao II took refuge with British & signed Subsidiary alliance.	Scindia, Bhonsle, Yeshwantrao Holkar & Wellesley	Treaty of Bassein Delhi acquired from Scindhia
III (1817-18)	Interference of British Resident & it started as a war to end Pindaris. Later Maratha sardars also openly supported Pindaris & joined the war as a last attempt to restore the lost glory	Bajirao-II Appasaheb, Madhavrao Holkar & Lord Hastings	End of Maratha Challenge. Peshwa was pensioned off & sent to a small estate near Kanpur.

Reasons for fall of Marathas

War of Succession : There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji and Rajaram. Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals. Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to the Ginjee fort.
Political structure: Divisions within

The other reason for downfall of Maratha empire was its own structure. Its nature was that of a confederacy where power was shared among the chiefs or sardars (Bhonsle, Holker etc).

Weak Revenue Administration

Marathas depended on the collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi and on their exploits from plunder and loot. They failed to develop an efficient system of revenue administration. New territories were conquered but much less focus was on the administration. Rulers were mainly interested in raising revenue from peasantry through taxation.

Weak Diplomacy

Marathas did not take the trouble to find out what was happening elsewhere and what their enemies were doing. There was no far-sighted statesmanship or effective strategy. They failed to cultivate alliances with forces around them.

Anglo-Maratha Wars and Subsidiary Alliance

In 1802, Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted subsidiary alliance by signing Treaty of Bassein. This marked the downfall of Maratha empire. By 1818 the Maratha power was finally crushed and the great chiefs that represented it in central India submitted and accepted the over lordship of the East India Company.

Shivaji was really a constructive genius and nation-builder. His rise from jagirdar to Chatrapathi was spectacular. He unified the Marathas and remained a great enemy of the Mughal empire. He was a daring soldier and a brilliant administrator. Post his rule, infighting, disunity amongst Maratha confederacy became the major reason for their downfall.

Punjab

Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the leader of the Sikh Empire, which ruled the northwest Indian subcontinent in the early half of the 19th century. His empire grew in the Punjab region under his leadership through 1839. Many reforms were introduced in the political, religious spheres along with modernization, investment into infrastructure and general prosperity during his reign. He was popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab, or “Lion of Punjab”. Recently, a statue of Ranjit Singh, who ruled Punjab for almost four decades (1801-39), was recently inaugurated in Lahore n the occasion of 180th death anniversary of the legendary Sikh ruler.

Legacy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh:

Ranjit Singh was born on November 13, 1780 in Gujranwala, now in Pakistan.
At that time, Punjab was ruled by powerful chieftains who had divided the territory into Misls.
Ranjit Singh overthrew the warring Misls and established a unified Sikh empire after he conquered Lahore in 1799.
He was given the title Lion of Punjab (Sher-e-Punjab) because he stemmed the tide of Afghan invaders in Lahore, which remained his capital until his death.
His general Hari Singh Nalwa built the Fort of Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, the route the foreign rulers took to invade India.
At the time of his death, he was the only sovereign leader left in India, all others having come under the control of the East India Company in some way or the other.

Lead a powerful and modernized Army:

Ranjit Singh’s combined the strong points of the traditional Khalsa army with western advances in warfare to raise Asia’s most powerful indigenous army of that time.
His army was a match for the one raised by the East India Company.
He appointed French General Jean Franquis Allard to modernise his army.
He also employed a large number of European officers, especially French, to train his troops.
During the Battle of Chillianwala, the second of the Anglo-Sikh wars that followed Ranjit Singh’s death, the British suffered the maximum casualties of officers in their entire history in India.

Extent of his reign:

Ranjit Singh’s trans-regional empire spread over several states. His empire included the former Mughal provinces of Lahore and Multan besides part of Kabul and the entire Peshawar.
The boundaries of his state went up to Ladakh — Zorawar Singh, a general from Jammu, had conquered Ladakh in Ranjit Singh’s name — in the northeast.
His empire extended till Khyber pass in the northwest, and up to Panjnad in the south where the five rivers of Punjab fell into the Indus.
During his regime, Punjab was a land of six rivers, the sixth being the Indus.

Contributions to Sikh community:

The maharaja was known for his just and secular rule; both Hindus and Muslims were given powerful positions in his Darbar.
The Sikhs take pride in him for he turned Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar into the Golden Temple by covering it with gold.
Right at the doorstep of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is a plaque that details how in 1830 AD, the maharaja did service over 10 years.
He is also credited with funding Hazoor Sahib gurudwara at the final resting place of Guru Gobind Singh in Nanded, Maharashtra.

Ranjit Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism. Singh is remembered for uniting Sikhs and founding the prosperous Sikh Empire. He is also remembered for his conquests and building a well-trained, self-sufficient Khalsa army to protect the empire.

The Conquest of Punjab & Anglo-Sikh Wars:

Period after the death of Maharaj Ranjit Singh (1839) saw great instability in Punjab.
Ultimately, Power fell into the hands of the brave and patriotic but utterly undisciplined army called Khalsa, which interfered in the affairs of state.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s son Dalip Singh was on the throne but state was ruled by his mother Rani Jindan with help of her favourite officers who on one hand intrigued with the British on one hand and incited the Khalsa on other.
British had signed a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh in 1809 but they were looking for every opportunity to conquer Punjab.
The Punjab army was provoked by the warlike actions of the British and their intrigues with the corrupt chiefs of the Punjab.

1st ANGLO-SIKH WAR (1845-46)

In 1845, when news reached the Khalsa that Lord Gough, the Commander-in-Chief, and Lord Hardinge, the Governor-General, were marching towards Ferozepur, it decided to strike and war started.
Though Punjab army fought with exemplary courage but it lost as the Prime Minister, Raja Lal Singh and the Commander-in-Chief, Misar Tej Singh conspired with the British.
After defeat of battle of Sobraon, Punjab Army conceded defeat and had to sign the

humiliating Treaty of Lahore in March 1846.

British annexed the Jalandhar Doab and Jammu and Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for a cash payment of five million rupees.
Punjab Army was reduced in strength and a strong British force was stationed at Lahore.
Later, in December 1846, another treaty was signed giving the British Resident at Lahore full authority over the state permitting them to station troops in any part of the state. Thus, the British Residential became the real ruler of the Punjab; it became a vassal state.

2nd ANGLO-SIKH WAR

In 1848 there were numerous local revolts in Punjab. Two prominent revolts were led by Mulraj at Multan and Chattar Singh Attariwala near Lahore.
The Punjab army fought bravely symbolized by famous Battle of Cillianwala but it was defeat after the final battle of Gujarat (a place in Punjab) in 1849.
Lord Dalhousie, the new Governor-General annexed Punjab in 1849.
Thus, it was the last independent state of India annexed to the British Empire of India.Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the leader of the Sikh Empire, which ruled the northwest Indian subcontinent in the early half of the 19th century. His empire grew in the Punjab region under his leadership through 1839. Many reforms were introduced in the political, religious spheres along with modernization, investment into infrastructure and general prosperity during his reign. He was popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab, or “Lion of Punjab”. Recently, a statue of Ranjit Singh, who ruled Punjab for almost four decades (1801-39), was recently inaugurated in Lahore n the occasion of 180th death anniversary of the legendary Sikh ruler.
Legacy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh:
- Ranjit Singh was born on November 13, 1780 in Gujranwala, now in Pakistan.
- At that time, Punjab was ruled by powerful chieftains who had divided the territory into Misls.
- Ranjit Singh overthrew the warring Misls and established a unified Sikh empire after he conquered Lahore in 1799.
- He was given the title Lion of Punjab (Sher-e-Punjab) because he stemmed the tide of Afghan invaders in Lahore, which remained his capital until his death.
- His general Hari Singh Nalwa built the Fort of Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, the route the foreign rulers took to invade India.
- At the time of his death, he was the only sovereign leader left in India, all others having come under the control of the East India Company in some way or the other.
Lead a powerful and modernized Army:
- Ranjit Singh’s combined the strong points of the traditional Khalsa army with western advances in warfare to raise Asia’s most powerful indigenous army of that time.
- His army was a match for the one raised by the East India Company.
- He appointed French General Jean Franquis Allard to modernise his army.
- He also employed a large number of European officers, especially French, to train his troops.
- During the Battle of Chillianwala, the second of the Anglo-Sikh wars that followed Ranjit Singh’s death, the British suffered the maximum casualties of officers in their entire history in India.
Extent of his reign:
- Ranjit Singh’s trans-regional empire spread over several states. His empire included the former Mughal provinces of Lahore and Multan besides part of Kabul and the entire Peshawar.
- The boundaries of his state went up to Ladakh — Zorawar Singh, a general from Jammu, had conquered Ladakh in Ranjit Singh’s name — in the northeast.
- His empire extended till Khyber pass in the northwest, and up to Panjnad in the south where the five rivers of Punjab fell into the Indus.
- During his regime, Punjab was a land of six rivers, the sixth being the Indus.
Contributions to Sikh community:
- The maharaja was known for his just and secular rule; both Hindus and Muslims were given powerful positions in his Darbar.
- The Sikhs take pride in him for he turned Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar into the Golden Temple by covering it with gold.
- Right at the doorstep of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is a plaque that details how in 1830 AD, the maharaja did service over 10 years.
- He is also credited with funding Hazoor Sahib gurudwara at the final resting place of Guru Gobind Singh in Nanded, Maharashtra.
Ranjit Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism. Singh is remembered for uniting Sikhs and founding the prosperous Sikh Empire. He is also remembered for his conquests and building a well-trained, self-sufficient Khalsa army to protect the empire.

The Conquest of Punjab & Anglo-Sikh Wars:
- Period after the death of Maharaj Ranjit Singh (1839) saw great instability in Punjab.
- Ultimately, Power fell into the hands of the brave and patriotic but utterly undisciplined army called Khalsa, which interfered in the affairs of state.
- Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s son Dalip Singh was on the throne but state was ruled by his mother Rani Jindan with help of her favourite officers who on one hand intrigued with the British on one hand and incited the Khalsa on other.
- British had signed a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh in 1809 but they were looking for every opportunity to conquer Punjab.
- The Punjab army was provoked by the warlike actions of the British and their intrigues with the corrupt chiefs of the Punjab.
1st ANGLO-SIKH WAR (1845-46)
- In 1845, when news reached the Khalsa that Lord Gough, the Commander-in-Chief, and Lord Hardinge, the Governor-General, were marching towards Ferozepur, it decided to strike and war started.
- Though Punjab army fought with exemplary courage but it lost as the Prime Minister, Raja Lal Singh and the Commander-in-Chief, Misar Tej Singh conspired with the British.
- After defeat of battle of Sobraon, Punjab Army conceded defeat and had to sign the
humiliating Treaty of Lahore in March 1846.
- British annexed the Jalandhar Doab and Jammu and Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for a cash payment of five million rupees.
- Punjab Army was reduced in strength and a strong British force was stationed at Lahore.
- Later, in December 1846, another treaty was signed giving the British Resident at Lahore full authority over the state permitting them to station troops in any part of the state. Thus, the British Residential became the real ruler of the Punjab; it became a vassal state.
2nd ANGLO-SIKH WAR
- In 1848 there were numerous local revolts in Punjab. Two prominent revolts were led by Mulraj at Multan and Chattar Singh Attariwala near Lahore.
- The Punjab army fought bravely symbolized by famous Battle of Cillianwala but it was defeat after the final battle of Gujarat (a place in Punjab) in 1849.
- Lord Dalhousie, the new Governor-General annexed Punjab in 1849.
- Thus, it was the last independent state of India annexed to the British Empire of India.Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the leader of the Sikh Empire, which ruled the northwest Indian subcontinent in the early half of the 19th century. His empire grew in the Punjab region under his leadership through 1839. Many reforms were introduced in the political, religious spheres along with modernization, investment into infrastructure and general prosperity during his reign. He was popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab, or “Lion of Punjab”. Recently, a statue of Ranjit Singh, who ruled Punjab for almost four decades (1801-39), was recently inaugurated in Lahore n the occasion of 180th death anniversary of the legendary Sikh ruler.
  Legacy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh:
  - Ranjit Singh was born on November 13, 1780 in Gujranwala, now in Pakistan.
  - At that time, Punjab was ruled by powerful chieftains who had divided the territory into Misls.
  - Ranjit Singh overthrew the warring Misls and established a unified Sikh empire after he conquered Lahore in 1799.
  - He was given the title Lion of Punjab (Sher-e-Punjab) because he stemmed the tide of Afghan invaders in Lahore, which remained his capital until his death.
  - His general Hari Singh Nalwa built the Fort of Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, the route the foreign rulers took to invade India.
  - At the time of his death, he was the only sovereign leader left in India, all others having come under the control of the East India Company in some way or the other.
  Lead a powerful and modernized Army:
  - Ranjit Singh’s combined the strong points of the traditional Khalsa army with western advances in warfare to raise Asia’s most powerful indigenous army of that time.
  - His army was a match for the one raised by the East India Company.
  - He appointed French General Jean Franquis Allard to modernise his army.
  - He also employed a large number of European officers, especially French, to train his troops.
  - During the Battle of Chillianwala, the second of the Anglo-Sikh wars that followed Ranjit Singh’s death, the British suffered the maximum casualties of officers in their entire history in India.
  Extent of his reign:
  - Ranjit Singh’s trans-regional empire spread over several states. His empire included the former Mughal provinces of Lahore and Multan besides part of Kabul and the entire Peshawar.
  - The boundaries of his state went up to Ladakh — Zorawar Singh, a general from Jammu, had conquered Ladakh in Ranjit Singh’s name — in the northeast.
  - His empire extended till Khyber pass in the northwest, and up to Panjnad in the south where the five rivers of Punjab fell into the Indus.
  - During his regime, Punjab was a land of six rivers, the sixth being the Indus.
  Contributions to Sikh community:
  - The maharaja was known for his just and secular rule; both Hindus and Muslims were given powerful positions in his Darbar.
  - The Sikhs take pride in him for he turned Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar into the Golden Temple by covering it with gold.
  - Right at the doorstep of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is a plaque that details how in 1830 AD, the maharaja did service over 10 years.
  - He is also credited with funding Hazoor Sahib gurudwara at the final resting place of Guru Gobind Singh in Nanded, Maharashtra.
  Ranjit Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism. Singh is remembered for uniting Sikhs and founding the prosperous Sikh Empire. He is also remembered for his conquests and building a well-trained, self-sufficient Khalsa army to protect the empire.
  
  The Conquest of Punjab & Anglo-Sikh Wars:
  - Period after the death of Maharaj Ranjit Singh (1839) saw great instability in Punjab.
  - Ultimately, Power fell into the hands of the brave and patriotic but utterly undisciplined army called Khalsa, which interfered in the affairs of state.
  - Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s son Dalip Singh was on the throne but state was ruled by his mother Rani Jindan with help of her favourite officers who on one hand intrigued with the British on one hand and incited the Khalsa on other.
  - British had signed a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh in 1809 but they were looking for every opportunity to conquer Punjab.
  - The Punjab army was provoked by the warlike actions of the British and their intrigues with the corrupt chiefs of the Punjab.
  1st ANGLO-SIKH WAR (1845-46)
  - In 1845, when news reached the Khalsa that Lord Gough, the Commander-in-Chief, and Lord Hardinge, the Governor-General, were marching towards Ferozepur, it decided to strike and war started.
  - Though Punjab army fought with exemplary courage but it lost as the Prime Minister, Raja Lal Singh and the Commander-in-Chief, Misar Tej Singh conspired with the British.
  - After defeat of battle of Sobraon, Punjab Army conceded defeat and had to sign the
  humiliating Treaty of Lahore in March 1846.
  - British annexed the Jalandhar Doab and Jammu and Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for a cash payment of five million rupees.
  - Punjab Army was reduced in strength and a strong British force was stationed at Lahore.
  - Later, in December 1846, another treaty was signed giving the British Resident at Lahore full authority over the state permitting them to station troops in any part of the state. Thus, the British Residential became the real ruler of the Punjab; it became a vassal state.
  2nd ANGLO-SIKH WAR
  - In 1848 there were numerous local revolts in Punjab. Two prominent revolts were led by Mulraj at Multan and Chattar Singh Attariwala near Lahore.
  - The Punjab army fought bravely symbolized by famous Battle of Cillianwala but it was defeat after the final battle of Gujarat (a place in Punjab) in 1849.
  - Lord Dalhousie, the new Governor-General annexed Punjab in 1849.
  - Thus, it was the last independent state of India annexed to the British Empire of India.Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the leader of the Sikh Empire, which ruled the northwest Indian subcontinent in the early half of the 19th century. His empire grew in the Punjab region under his leadership through 1839. Many reforms were introduced in the political, religious spheres along with modernization, investment into infrastructure and general prosperity during his reign. He was popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab, or “Lion of Punjab”. Recently, a statue of Ranjit Singh, who ruled Punjab for almost four decades (1801-39), was recently inaugurated in Lahore n the occasion of 180th death anniversary of the legendary Sikh ruler.
    Legacy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh:
    - Ranjit Singh was born on November 13, 1780 in Gujranwala, now in Pakistan.
    - At that time, Punjab was ruled by powerful chieftains who had divided the territory into Misls.
    - Ranjit Singh overthrew the warring Misls and established a unified Sikh empire after he conquered Lahore in 1799.
    - He was given the title Lion of Punjab (Sher-e-Punjab) because he stemmed the tide of Afghan invaders in Lahore, which remained his capital until his death.
    - His general Hari Singh Nalwa built the Fort of Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, the route the foreign rulers took to invade India.
    - At the time of his death, he was the only sovereign leader left in India, all others having come under the control of the East India Company in some way or the other.
    Lead a powerful and modernized Army:
    - Ranjit Singh’s combined the strong points of the traditional Khalsa army with western advances in warfare to raise Asia’s most powerful indigenous army of that time.
    - His army was a match for the one raised by the East India Company.
    - He appointed French General Jean Franquis Allard to modernise his army.
    - He also employed a large number of European officers, especially French, to train his troops.
    - During the Battle of Chillianwala, the second of the Anglo-Sikh wars that followed Ranjit Singh’s death, the British suffered the maximum casualties of officers in their entire history in India.
    Extent of his reign:
    - Ranjit Singh’s trans-regional empire spread over several states. His empire included the former Mughal provinces of Lahore and Multan besides part of Kabul and the entire Peshawar.
    - The boundaries of his state went up to Ladakh — Zorawar Singh, a general from Jammu, had conquered Ladakh in Ranjit Singh’s name — in the northeast.
    - His empire extended till Khyber pass in the northwest, and up to Panjnad in the south where the five rivers of Punjab fell into the Indus.
    - During his regime, Punjab was a land of six rivers, the sixth being the Indus.
    Contributions to Sikh community:
    - The maharaja was known for his just and secular rule; both Hindus and Muslims were given powerful positions in his Darbar.
    - The Sikhs take pride in him for he turned Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar into the Golden Temple by covering it with gold.
    - Right at the doorstep of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is a plaque that details how in 1830 AD, the maharaja did service over 10 years.
    - He is also credited with funding Hazoor Sahib gurudwara at the final resting place of Guru Gobind Singh in Nanded, Maharashtra.
    Ranjit Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism. Singh is remembered for uniting Sikhs and founding the prosperous Sikh Empire. He is also remembered for his conquests and building a well-trained, self-sufficient Khalsa army to protect the empire.
    
    The Conquest of Punjab & Anglo-Sikh Wars:
    - Period after the death of Maharaj Ranjit Singh (1839) saw great instability in Punjab.
    - Ultimately, Power fell into the hands of the brave and patriotic but utterly undisciplined army called Khalsa, which interfered in the affairs of state.
    - Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s son Dalip Singh was on the throne but state was ruled by his mother Rani Jindan with help of her favourite officers who on one hand intrigued with the British on one hand and incited the Khalsa on other.
    - British had signed a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh in 1809 but they were looking for every opportunity to conquer Punjab.
    - The Punjab army was provoked by the warlike actions of the British and their intrigues with the corrupt chiefs of the Punjab.
    1st ANGLO-SIKH WAR (1845-46)
    - In 1845, when news reached the Khalsa that Lord Gough, the Commander-in-Chief, and Lord Hardinge, the Governor-General, were marching towards Ferozepur, it decided to strike and war started.
    - Though Punjab army fought with exemplary courage but it lost as the Prime Minister, Raja Lal Singh and the Commander-in-Chief, Misar Tej Singh conspired with the British.
    - After defeat of battle of Sobraon, Punjab Army conceded defeat and had to sign the
    humiliating Treaty of Lahore in March 1846.
    - British annexed the Jalandhar Doab and Jammu and Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for a cash payment of five million rupees.
    - Punjab Army was reduced in strength and a strong British force was stationed at Lahore.
    - Later, in December 1846, another treaty was signed giving the British Resident at Lahore full authority over the state permitting them to station troops in any part of the state. Thus, the British Residential became the real ruler of the Punjab; it became a vassal state.
    2nd ANGLO-SIKH WAR
    - In 1848 there were numerous local revolts in Punjab. Two prominent revolts were led by Mulraj at Multan and Chattar Singh Attariwala near Lahore.
    - The Punjab army fought bravely symbolized by famous Battle of Cillianwala but it was defeat after the final battle of Gujarat (a place in Punjab) in 1849.
    - Lord Dalhousie, the new Governor-General annexed Punjab in 1849.
    - Thus, it was the last independent state of India annexed to the British Empire of India.

Mysore

ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

WAR & Year	Course of Events	GOVERNOR-GENERAL	RESULT
I (1766-69)	Haider Ali broke the triple alliance of British, Nizam and Marathas and then declared war on the British. He won brilliant victories against British and reached the outskirts of Madras.	Robert Clive	The British were compelled to sign a defensive treaty; Treaty of Madras
II (1780-82)	Haider & Tipu Mahe, a French settlement under Haider was captured by British. • Haider formed triple alliance with Maratha and Nizam against British. • Haider inflicted many defeats but Warren Hastings signed peace of Salbai with Marathas and bribed Nizam with Guntur region and broke the triple alliance. • In 1781, Eyre Coote defeated Haider at Porto Novo. • A year later Haidar died and war was carried on by Tipu Sultan.	Warren Hastings	As war dragged on, both sides signed peace Treaty of Mangalore
III (1790- 92)	• Tipu was considered as most formidable rival by British in their quest for domination of south India. • Tipu captured the territories of Travancore state, an ally of British. • Triple alliance between British, Marathas and Nizam formed against Tipu.	Cornwallis	Governor-general Cornwallis himself assumed the command and after heavy reverses, Tipu agreed to peace with treaty of Seringapatnam (1792). By this treaty, Tipu lost nearly half his territories, which were distributed between three allies
IV (1799)	Tipu formed alliance with revolutionary France and sent embassies to Arabia and Turkey, Lord Wellesly was keen to eliminate Mysore as last stumbling block in South. • However, Tipu was defeated before the French help could reach him. • He died defending his capital Seringapatnam. His army remained loyal to him.	Wellesley	While, Nearly half of Tipu’s dominions were divided between British and Nizam. • A small part was restored to Krishnaraja-III of Wodeyar family from whom Haider had seized power and subsidiary treaty signed with him in 1799.

MYSORE & Tipu sultan

Tipu was the son of Haider Ali, a professional soldier who climbed the ranks in the army of the Wodeyar king of Mysore, and ultimately took power in 1761.
He was born in 1750 and, as a 17-year-old, fought in the first Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) and subsequently, against the Marathas and in the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84).
Haider died while this war was on, and Tipu succeeded him in 1782.

Fought the British

Tipu mounted the most serious challenge the Company faced in India. He allied with the French to frustrate its attempts to control the politics of the Deccan and Carnatic, and challenged its vital trading interests.
He fought Company forces four times during 1767-99, and gave Governors-General Cornwallis and Wellesley bloody noses before he was killed defending his capital Srirangapatnam in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
With Tipu gone, Wellesley imposed the Subsidiary Alliance on the reinstated Wodeyar king, and Mysore became the Company’s client state

Modernised army

Tipu has so far been seen as a man of imagination and courage, a brilliant military strategist who, in a short reign of 17 years,
Tipu reorganised his army along European lines, using new technology, including what is considered the first war rocket.

Agricultural reforms

He devised a land revenue system based on detailed surveys and classification, in which the tax was imposed directly on the peasant, and collected through salaried agents in cash, widening the state’s resource base.
He modernised agriculture, gave tax breaks for developing wasteland, built irrigation infrastructure and repaired old dams, and promoted agricultural manufacturing and sericulture.

Established trading posts

He built a navy to support trade, and commissioned a “state commercial corporation” to set up factories. As Mysore traded in sandalwood, silk, spices, rice and sulphur, some 30 trading outposts were established across Tipu’s dominions and overseas.

Annexations and religious persecutions

Haider and Tipu had strong territorial ambitions, and invaded and annexed territories outside Mysore.
Haider annexed Malabar and Kozhikode, and conquered Kodagu, Thrissur and Kochi.
Tipu raided Kodagu and Kochi.
In Kodagu, Mangaluru and Malabar today, Tipu is seen as a bloodthirsty tyrant who burnt down entire towns and villages, razed hundreds of temples and churches, and forcibly converted Hindus.
He was keen to subjugate Kodagu because it lay on the road from Mysore to Mangaluru, the port that Tipu wanted to control.
There is evidence that Tipu persecuted Hindus and Christians, but there is also evidence that he patronised Hindu temples and priests, and gave them grants and gifts. He donated to temples at Nanjangud, Kanchi and Kalale, and patronised the Sringeri mutt.
When linguistic states were formed in the 1950s, many regions that read their historical past differently were merged under a common linguistic identity. Kodagu, now part of Karnataka, has always seen Tipu as an invader, and the old Mysore state’s narrative of him as a moderniser would not be acceptable to Kodagu only because it is now the official state narrative.

Placing a personality in binary terms is neither rational nor progressive. Historical perspectives should be critically analysed only to study from the past so as to live in a better present and build a better tomorrow. Attempts to see such narratives in political,communal or religious lines to create divisions in society should be vehemently opposed.

Furthermore historical narratives are contextualised. Tipu is revered as builder of modern Karnataka in the partcular state whereas in areas like Malabar he is seen as tyrant who butchered masses.

It serves no purpose to view Tipu’s multilayered personality through the prism of morality or religion; it is not necessary that he be judged only in terms of either a hero or a tyrant.

Hyderabad

Introduction

The former princely state of south-central India that was centred on the city of Hyderabad, was founded by Nizam al-Mulk (Āṣaf Jāh), who was intermittently viceroy of the Deccan (peninsular India) under the Mughal emperors from 1713 to 1721 and who resumed the post again under the title Āṣaf Jāh in 1724.
At that time he became virtually independent and founded the dynasty of the nizams (rulers) of Hyderabad.

Emergence of new states in 18th Century

By 1761 the Mughal empire was empire only in name, as its weaknesses had enabled the local powers to assert their independence
Yet the symbolic authority of the Mughal emperor continued, as he was still considered to be a source of political legitimacy.
The new states did not directly challenge his authority and constantly sought his sanction to legitimise their rule.
The emergence of these states in the eighteenth century, therefore, represented a transformation rather than collapse of the polity. It signified a decentralisation of power and not a power vacuum or political chaos.
These new states were of various kinds with diverse histories:
- some of them were founded by Mughal provincial governors
- some were set up by the rebels against the Mughal state; and
- a few states which asserted their independence were previously functioning as autonomous but dependent polities
Thus, this phase is regarded as a transitional era between the medieval and modern period.

Early history of Hyderabad

Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of Maratha Empire.
- The Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular Chauth (tax) to the Marathas
Following the conquest of Deccan by Bajirao I and the imposition of chauth by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent and purposes.
In 1763, the Nizam shifted the capital to the city of Hyderabad.
- From 1778, a British resident and soldiers were installed in his dominions.

British suzerainty

In 1798, Nizam Ali Khan (Asaf Jah II) was forced to enter into an agreement that put Hyderabad under British protection. He was the first Indian prince to sign such an agreement.
- At this time, the Crown retained the right to intervene in case of misrule.
Hyderabad under Asaf Jah II was a British ally in the second and third Maratha Wars (1803–05, 1817–19), Anglo-Mysore wars, and would remain loyal to the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (1857–58).

Consolidation of Power

In Hyderabad, Mubariz Khan, the Mughal governor of Deccan, was ruling almost as an independent king.
- In 1723 the nizam defeated Mubariz and the following year he took over as the Subahdar of Deccan and consolidated his power around Hyderabad.
The actual independence of the Hyderabad kingdom may be dated from 1740 when finally the nizam left north India to settle there permanently
He subdued the refractory zamindars and showed tolerance towards the Hindus who had economic power in their hands and as a result, Hyderabad witnessed the emergence of a new regional elite who supported the nizam.
For all practical purposes, the nizam acted independently, conducting wars, signing treaties, conferring mansabs and making important appointments without any reference to the emperor

Administration under Nizams

The Hyderabadi administrative system did not try to destroy the indigenous power structures within the territory, but sought to incorporate them into a “patron-client relationship” with the central power
The locally entrenched semi-autonomous rulers were allowed to govern their inherited territories in return for an annual tribute or peshkash paid to the nizam
The locally powerful traders, moneylenders and the military aristocracy also played a crucial role in the Hyderabad polity, by providing valuable financial and military support to the nizam, who emerged as the chief patron within the polity
Under this new administration, the old Mughal institutions were not totally thrown out, but they underwent substantial changes in content
- Land revenue was collected through powerful intermediary revenue farmers; but unlike the Mughal practice, there was very little attempt to keep them under control.
- The jagirs under this new system became hereditary and the mansabdari system only retained a few of its Mughal features.
- There was also a remarkable change in the composition of the nobility: while the older military aristocracy retained some of its power, some new men with expertise in revenue and financial management rose from lower ranks.

Thus, by the end of the eighteenth century, Hyderabad represented a relatively new political system with a whole range of new participants, who had diverse origins and social background

Others

Introduction

Along with the decline of the Mughal empire, another major theme of the 18th Century was the emergence of regional polities. Broadly there were three kinds of states which came into prominence:
- the states which broke away from the Mughal empire,
- the new states set up by the rebels against the Mughal, and
- the independent states.

Other Indian Kingdoms in 18th Century in brief:

Bengal
- The province or the Subah of Bengal gradually became independent of Mughal control after Murshid Quli Khan became the governor in 1717.
  - Initially, Aurangzeb had appointed him the diwan (collector of revenue) of Bengal to streamline the revenue administration of the province
- Later in 1717 when he was appointed the governor or Nazim of Bengal, he was given the unprecedented privilege of holding the two offices of nazim and diwan simultaneously

The division of power, which was maintained throughout the Mughal period to keep both the imperial officers under control through a system of checks and balances, was thus done away with
This helped Murshid Quli, who was already known for his efficient revenue administration, to consolidate his position further
He did not of course formally defy Mughal authority and regularly sent revenue to the imperial treasury
But within his own domain he acted as an autonomous ruler and in a true dynastic fashion named his daughter’s son Sarfaraz Khan his successor.
But Sarfaraz was ousted by his father Shujauddin Muhammad Khan (Murshid Quli’s son-in-law), who took control of the two provinces of Bengal and Orissa in 1727
The gradual rise in the power of the merchants, bankers and zamindars also meant a relative diminution of the authority of the nazim
- This became quite evident in a coup in 1739-40, in which Shujauddin’s son Sarfaraz Khan, who had become the new nazim, was ousted by his army commander Alivardi Khan
Finally, It was Alivardi’s reign, which marked a virtual break with the Mughals
- All major appointments were now made without any reference to the emperor and finally, the regular

flow of revenue to Delhi was stopped

Alivardi died in 1756, nominating his grandson Siraj-ud-daula his successor
- But his succession was challenged by two other contenders for the throne, which resulted in intense court factionalism
This destabilised the administration of Bengal, and the advantage was taken by the English East India Company, which acquired a foothold in Bengal politics through what is popularly known as the Plassey conspiracy of 1757 that ended the rule of Siraj-ud-daula

AWADH
- Another Mughal province that became autonomous in the course of the eighteenth century was Awadh

Saadat Khan was appointed the Mughal governor of Awadh in 1722 with the difficult charge of subduing rebellions by the local rajas and chiefs
Soon after this, Saadat Khan returned to the capital to consolidate his position in the imperial court, but ended up in a quarrel with one of Muhammad Shah’s favourites and was again forced to return to Awadh.
- Frustrated in court politics, Saadat then decided to build up a power base in Awadh
- Towards the establishment of his dynastic rule, he made office of diwan virtually independent of all imperial control
The jagirdari system was reformed, with jagirs being granted to the local gentry, while a rich flow of trade kept the province affluent.
- This resulted in the creation of a new regional ruling elite, consisting mainly of Indian Muslims, Afghans and Hindus who became Saadat’s main support base.
Thus, by the time he died in 1740, Saadat had certainly developed in Awadh a semi- autonomous regional political system
Later, When Nadir Shah remained the emperor of India for just two months and he settled the succession question in Awadh by accepting twenty million rupees as peshkash from Safdar Jung, Saadat Khan’s son-in-law
- Muhammad Shah(Mughal Emperor) later confirmed this appointment and conferred on him an imperial title.
Further, after Safdar Jung’s death in late 1754, his only son Shuja-ud-daula was again appointed the governor of Awadh by the puppet emperor Alamgir II.
- And Shuja too successfully maintained the autonomy of the Awadh subah without ever formally defying the symbolic authority of the Mughal emperor
Later, when Afghan leader Ahmad Shah Abdali arrived again in India to engage the Marathas in the Third

Battle of Panipat (1761), Shuja joined the Afghan invader to see his local opponents, the Marathas, humbled and weakened

Eventually, within his own domain of Awadh and Allahabad his autonomy and power remained unchallenged till his encounter with the English East India Company in 1764.

RAJPUTS
- The Rajput rulers did not lag behind in consolidating their position by taking advantage of the disintegration of the Mughal empire
- None were large enough to contend with the Marathas or the British for the position of paramount power
- They participated in the struggle for power at the court of Delhi and gained lucrative and influential governorships from the Mughal emperors.
- Rajput policy continued to be fractured in the post Mughal period.
- All the states followed a policy of constant expansion absorbing weak neighbours whenever possible. This took place within the State too, with one faction ousting the other

As a result, the most well-known Rajput ruler, Jai Singh of Amber rules Jaipur from 1699 to 1743

TRAVANCORE
- Further south, the southernmost state of Travancore had always maintained its independence from Mughal rule.
- It gained in importance after 1729 when its king Marranda Varma started expanding his dominions with the help of a strong and modern army trained along Western lines and equipped with modern weapons
- The Dutch were ousted from the region; the English were made to accept his terms of trade; local feudal chiefs were suppressed; and smaller principalities governed by collateral branches of the royal family were taken over
- Travancore withstood the shock of a Mysorean invasion in 1766 and under Martanda Varma’s successor Rama Varma, its capital, Trivandrum, became a centre of scholarship and art.
  - In his death towards the closing years of the eighteenth century the region lost its former glory and soon succumbed to British pressure, accepting a Resident in 1800

Summary of 18th Century Kingdoms in India

The major characteristic of eighteenth-century India was, therefore the weakening of the centralised Mughal empire and a dispersal of political power across the regions
The symbols of Mughal authority were still recognised, the Mughal system also continued, although in some areas its content was substantially changed
Eventually, although the successor states continued Mughal institutions and perhaps also inherited some of their weaknesses-there were also indications of significant innovation and improvement—both in terms of political rituals and insignia, as also in perfecting mechanisms of resource extraction from agriculture and trade
At a political level all these states continually made adjustments between concepts of centralised kingship and local loyalties, between pre-bended lordship and hereditary rights, or in more general terms, between centripetal and centrifugal tendencies
Hence, the progression of Kingdoms as detailed above, and their eventual subjugation by the British; who took control later in 19th Century India

Indian Kingdoms in 18th Century

Marathas

Punjab

Mysore

Hyderabad

Others

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